Uncovering Subjectivity

“The body is the soul you are looking for.” — J.G. Fichte, Facts of Consciousness (1810/11)

Background

How do living beings engage with the world? Traditional analytical-empirical approaches to cognition and action define subjectivity as a special, qualitative aspect of experience—famously captured in the phrase “what is it like to be” in a certain mental state. In this view, subjectivity is seen as a byproduct of psychological experience, separate from the mechanics of cognition and action. This perspective implies that subjective states emerge on top of a mechanistic cognitive system, rather than being essential to it.

But this dualistic approach falls short. Research in the physics of living systems shows that even simple organisms do not function like predictable machines. Instead, they exhibit adaptive behavior—which, by definition, goes beyond deterministic rules. Similarly, embodied cognition emphasizes that cognition and action are fundamentally biological processes. While all living systems are composed of physical matter and subject to natural laws, their behavior is not fully determined by these laws. Instead, living beings use their material structure to pursue goals, modifying both their internal state and their environment.

This inherent intentionality means that life is not something that exists on top of physical mechanisms—it organizes the very being of living systems. In other words, living beings exist as living beings because their physical nature enables them to pursue life. Their material existence is already intentional.

If this is the case, the classic divide between “mechanical nature” and “subjective minds” no longer makes sense. The matter that makes up living systems is already structured to support goal-directed activity. Subjectivity is not a psychological add-on—it is the way living systems operate.

In practice, this means that living systems use their physical structure to produce behavior that is goal-oriented and stable, yet flexible and adaptive. This is not a contradiction. Intentional behavior is stable because it is adaptive. While physical laws determine how material processes function, we determine their purpose—that is, how we use them to pursue our goals.

J.G. Fichte anticipated this embodied understanding of cognition and action: we act intentionally because we have a body. Our bodily interactions are the social and cultural expressions of our inherent intentionality.

Our Goal

We challenge the psychologization of subjectivity by uncovering its true function: the functional organization of cognition and action. Our research spans all domains of intentional action—from neuromuscular control to action-perception coupling and conscious decision-making.

Research Focus

We investigate the ability of living systems to modify themselves and their environment in line with their intentions—a concept we call subjective efficacy. We focus on human intentional action, studying how self-initiated and intentional movement connects to its neuromuscular implementation.

Research Approaches

Subjectivity, as the functional organization of cognition and action, is a complex phenomenon. To explore it, we use a diverse set of philosophical and scientific methods:

• Transcendental and phenomenological analysis

• Action theory

• Motor control theory

• Experimental methods

Transcendental and Phenomenological Analysis

J.G. Fichte’s Wissenschaftslehre (Doctrine of Scientific Knowledge) provides a systematic study of subjectivity and consciousness. His transcendental approach explores the heterarchical conditions that make intentional action possible—that is, the functional organization underlying our self-controlled and cognitive agency.

E. Husserl builds on this perspective by analyzing different modes of agency—perception, feeling, thought, knowledge, decision-making, and action. His phenomenology of the will is especially relevant to our research on subjective efficacy. Drawing on his insights, we developed the concept of performative intentionality, which examines self-controlled action from a first-person perspective.

Action Theory

We investigate how intentions translate into real-world actions. Rather than viewing intentional action as a rigid, pre-planned process, we propose an improvisational model of action.

• An agent may begin with a general goal in mind.

• The specific action unfolds dynamically, shaped by an ongoing interaction between the agent and the environment.

• The agent adapts in real-time, drawing on skills, habits, and situational affordances.

This means intentional action is not just a cause-and-effect process. Instead, it emerges through interaction, adjusting to the unique challenges of each situation.

Motor Control Theory

Traditional motor control theories assume that either:

• Intentions determine actions (top-down control), or

• Pre-programmed motor commands control movement.

Both views fail to explain the flexibility and adaptability of human movement. Instead, we follow the referent control approach, which accounts for motor abundance—the idea that multiple movement strategies can achieve the same goal. This perspective better reflects the plasticity of muscle control and the situational nature of movement.

Experimental Methods

To analyze subjective efficacy, we combine quantitative and qualitative techniques:

• First-person experience reports during movement initiation

• Questionnaires for measurable data

• Micro-phenomenological interviews for detailed subjective insights

• Gait analysis to study movement patterns

• Electromyography (EMG) to measure muscle activity

• 3D motion capture for precise movement tracking

Current Projects (as of March 2025)

Habits in Action

How do habits shape our ability to act? Subjective efficacy—our ability to act according to our intentions—relies on a range of agential capacities. One of the most crucial is habit.

Habits are the foundation of human adaptability and flexibility. They allow us to engage with new situations and navigate unforeseen interactions by drawing on a repertoire of established behaviors. But habits are not static—they develop dynamically in response to our interactions with the environment. Like intentions, they shape our actions while remaining responsive to change.

• Habits guide our actions, giving us the freedom to focus on specific aspects of a task.

• At the same time, habits adapt, helping us refine our responses for future situations.

Because of this, habits play a fundamental role in how actions emerge. Based on our improvisational model of abductive performance, our research aims to develop a model that explains the functional role of habits and their connection to conscious, habitual action.

Phenomenal Biophysics

How are bodily movements and conscious intentions connected?

Humans can initiate movements in a self-controlled manner. This suggests that conscious acts and bodily movements are directly linked—a connection that traditional mind-body and computational-representational approaches fail to fully explain.

In contrast, phenomenal biophysics proposes that:

• Conscious actions are identical to the initiation of bodily movements.

• If actions are performed consciously and self-controlled, then their biophysical execution is inherently subjective—and their conscious performance is inherently biophysical.

This approach defines subjectivity in two key ways:

1. As an active force—Subjectivity is not just about experience; it is about intentionally shaping oneself and the world through action.

2. As a methodological framework—Subjectivity refers to the functional organization of all processes involved in controlling intentional behavior.

These processes include:

• The phenomenology of action (how it is consciously enacted from the first-person perspective)

• The etiology of action (how actions originate)

• The biophysical control of action (how movements are physically executed)

Our goal is to map these processes and show how the conscious initiation of gait (walking) is identical to its biophysical implementation. To do this, phenomenal biophysics integrates both conceptual and experimental research.

Applying Phenomenology and Motor Control Theory to Subjective Efficacy

We are currently conducting an experiment to explore the link between conscious experience and biophysical action:

• How do people consciously initiate gait (walking)?

• How does this conscious intention translate into physical movement?

The goal is to identify the early stages of motor control, where subjective performance of gait initiation become measurable biophysical phenomena. This research has practical applications for:

• Neurorehabilitation—helping refine treatment strategies.

• Consciousness research—improving the diagnosis of consciousness disorders.

However, self-controlled gait initiation is a highly elusive phenomenon. Simple actions can be disrupted by external instructions or distractions, making it difficult to measure their underlying biophysical mechanisms. To address this, we will:

• Manipulate the subject’s focus on their body during gait initiation.

• Use a combination of gait measurement, questionnaires, and micro-phenomenological interviews to analyze the results.

Past Projects

Subjective Computing

Can artificial agents develop a form of subjectivity? To enable Autonomous Mental Development (AMD) in robotics, we introduced a model of subjective computing.

The goal:

• Design more adaptive and flexible robots.

• Specify the conditions needed for real-time adaptation.

• Allow artificial agents to interact with humans more intuitively.

By integrating features of human subjectivity, such as perceptual processes and social interaction, subjective computing offers a new approach to algorithm design for more natural human-machine interactions.

Empowerment Technologies

This project explored how knowledge about human agency can inform the design of human-machine interactions—with a particular focus on rehabilitation, child development, and elder care.

Project Summary

A new generation of Empowerment Technologies (ET) is emerging to:

• Support rehabilitation by supplementing lost functions.

• Enhance child development by aiding learning and interaction.

• Provide assistance and companionship for elderly care.

However, because ET is used in intimate areas of life, challenges such as dehumanization of care may arise. While there is extensive medical and engineering knowledge available, there is little understanding of the desires, expectations, and fears of ET end-users.

Our Approach

To ensure that Empowerment Technologies are socially acceptable, we developed a value-based model that integrates:

• Basic philosophical research on human agency.

• Social stakeholder analysis to understand user needs.

• Case studies in ET development and application.

The Empowerment Loop

Our final model, the Empowerment Loop, combines:

1. A universal framework for human-technology interaction.

2. The social norms and values of different stakeholder groups.

3. A practical guide for the research and development of ET.